Forty years ago, there was very little available on the history of general United States seacoast defense. Most of the material of interest lay in buried in the National Archives holdings, or in increasingly rare collections of old army publications on the bookshelves of some major libraries. There was nothing generally available in print-- E. R. Lewis' book had been published as a limited edition by the Smithsonian Press in 1970 but was soon sold out, other important works had been even longer out of print. Since then there has been a great expansion of original works, reprints, and photocopies of material on this subject, that make it possible to build a good general reference collection in personal or public libraries. This is a list of some of the publications and source documents used by researchers in the study of US Army seacoast defenses (1781-1947).
The CDSG has published a number of reference guides to the holdings of the National Archives. One of these guides have been reproduced as a web page: Basic Research in Textual Records at the National Archives.
An excellent guide to doing research in the National Archives and Records Administration holdings is Environmental Cleanup at Former and Current Military Sites: A Guide to Research (EP-870-1-64), USACE, Historical Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers, GPO, Washington, DC, 2001). This book can be downloaded as PDF files from the Office's publications page-http://www.usace.army.mil/History/bookshelf/Pages/Books.aspx.
Original copies of the some of material listed here can only be found at the National Archives (www.nara.gov). Some of these sources, especially the out of print books and manuals, can also be found at the Military History Institute at Carlisle Barracks and in the holdings of major city and university libraries which are designated repositories for Federal records. An increasing number of these references have been copied and are now available from several sources including the CDSG ePress, and Military-Info.com.
Seacoast Fortifications of the United States, an Introductory History, by Emanuel R. Lewis, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD 1970, 1992. The one and only general history of seacoast defenses of the United States. This short text of 145 pages is well written and profusely illustrated. The book covers the entire history of United States seacoast artillery defense. Lewis discusses defense traditions, tactics and techniques in the introduction, then goes on discusses the US seacoast fortifications in the body of the book-the colonial beginnings, the First, Second and Third Systems, the Civil War years and after, the modern era construction of the Endicott, Taft, post WW I, and the WW II programs, and the remnants that remain today. Paperback is currently available from the Naval Institute Press, www.nip.org.
Defending America's Coasts 1775-1950, by Dale E. Floyd, Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers EP 870-1-57, Alexandria, VA, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1997. This book can be downloaded as PDF files from the Office's publications page-http://www.usace.army.mil/History/bookshelf/Pages/Books.aspx. This is an excellent general bibliography of books, manuals, and articles written about US seacoast defenses. This supercedes a previous version of this work United States Coast Defense, 1775-1950, (EP 870-1-15), 1985.
American Coastal Defenses 1885-1950 by Terrance McGovern and Bolling Smith. While virtually every nation recognized the superiority of forts over ships and relied on fortifications to protect their harbors, America took to them with particular enthusiasm. They particularly suited the American character. It required little manpower except during time of war and did not threaten the liberties of a people raised to distrust standing armies. The recommendations of the Endicott Board (1885-86) led to the Endicott System that provided the basic pattern for American coast defenses until their demise after WWII, modified by the Taft Board (1906) to form the Endicott/Taft system on the way. It was the greatest defensive effort in the history of the country, and its remains still stand at virtually every significant harbor in the country. This introduction to the purpose, development, and eventual abandonment of American coastal defenses in the “Modern Era” - the era characterized by the use of powerful breech-loading rifles and mortars mounted in earth and concrete batteries - covers the emplacements, weapons, and equipment, as well as the men who defended their country in peace and war. Available from Amazon.com.
Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794-1815 by Arthur P. Wade, the best source of information on the First and Second Systems of American fortifications. Originally written as a PhD Thesis in 1971, it has now been published as a paperback by the CDSG Press and is available from lulu.com.
A Legacy in Brick and Stone: American Coastal Defense Forts of the Third System 1816-1867, By John R. Weaver II, Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., Missoula, MT, 2001. This fine work provides an introduction to the brick and stone forts of the American Third System harbor defense fortifications built between 1816 and 1867. The book begins with a study of the history of the Coastal Fortifications Board, which developed and implemented this massive defense project, then details the art of fortification of that period and describes the particular architectural components that were key to their design. Approximately two-thirds of this volume is dedicated to an illustrated fort-by-fort description of the system. The book is currently out of print, but a second edition is being prepared.
American Seacoast Defenses, a Reference Guide, Mark A. Berhow editor, CDSG Press, Bel Air, MD 1999 A reference work containing more specific details of the modern United States seacoast defenses (1890-1950) with sections on sources, maps, fire control, mines, guns & emplacements, coast artillery lore, and more. Available in paperback from the CDSG Press,
The CDSG Publications News/Journal CD ROM: The CD ROM contains all the back issues of the CDSG News/Journal/Newsletter in the PDF format. It also has searchable table of contents to the remaining volumes. Available from the CDSG ePress.
For those of you interested in Air Defenses (1950-1978)---
Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950-1979; an introductory history and site guide, By Mark L. Morgan and Mark A. Berhow, Third Edition, 2010, This work covers the development and deployment of US Army air defense gun and missile systems, including Nike-Ajax, Nike Hercules, BOMARC, and the Safeguard anti-ballistic missile system. The bulk of the work is a comprehenisive guide listing all the sites where these systems were deployed. Available from Hole in the Head Press and other distributers.
Notes on Seacoast Fortification Construction, by E.E. Winslow, Occasional Papers No. 61, Engineering School, United States Army, Govt. Pub. Office, Wash. DC 1920, reprinted CDSG Press, Bel Air, MD, 1994. An excellent primary source which surveys the construction of the early modern United States seacoast defenses (1880-1920), by an officer involved in the construction. The book discusses the historical background of seacoast fortifications, armor and armament, material used in construction of emplacements, ammunition supply and service, general design and details of the emplacements, ventilation, blast effects, electrical service, fire control, searchlights, and submarine mining. A hardcover reprint, with a separate paperback containing reproductions of the plates.
The Service of Coast Artillery, by Frank T. Hines, and Franklin W. Ward, Goodenough & Woglam Co., New York, 1910, reprinted by the CDSG press, Bel Air, MD, 1997 (hardcover, available from the CDSG Press). This text was prepared by two coast artillery officers and intended for new officers in the Coast Artillery Corps. It provides basic information on the weapons, tactics, and doctrine of the service dedicated to manning the seacoast defenses including definition of terms, theory and principles, organization and personnel, gunnery and ballistics, armament, projectiles, instruments, searchlights, submarine mining, engineering, and tactics.
American Coast Artillery Materiel (Ordnance Department Document No. 2042), Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1923. An army publication that discusses and illustrates all the seacoast artillery weapons in use in 1922. This is one of the most comprehensive and profusely illustrated works on the specifics of early modern United States seacoast artillery weapons, though a number of weapons (obsolete by 1922) were left out. Sections include the history of the development of artillery, the design and manufacture of a 16-inch seacoast weapon, detailed descriptions of American seacoast guns and mounts, and several tables of weapon data.
Technical Manual 4-210, Seacoast Artillery Weapons, War Department, Govt. Printing Off., Washington, DC, 1944, reprinted by the CDSG Press, Bel Air, MD, 1995. This publication describes and illustrates the seacoast artillery weapons used during the World War II years. Sections include cannons, recoil mechanisms, carriages, searchlights, and data on the characteristics of American seacoast artillery weapons.
Permanent Fortifications and Sea-Coast Defenses: Congressional Report No. 62, U.S. House of Rep. (1862), Report of the Committee on Military Affairs. In 1862, the 37th Congress of the United States, Committee on Military Affairs (now known as the Armed Services Committee) monitored the conduct and financing of the Union war effort. Permanent Fortifications and Sea-Coast Defenses (House of Representatives Report No. 86) reprinted a number of the important previous reports dealing with fortifications from various time periods including the best known one, Chief Engineer Joseph G. Totten's 1851 report. These reports informed Congressmen and Senators of accomplished work, the fortifications' value and future requirements; they were basically narrative reports, with accompany charts and listings on subjects such as the fortifications erected at each site. "Permanent Fortifications" is the best one-volume source for information and explanation of "Third System" coastal fortifications.
The Endicott Board Report was formally known as the Report of the Board on Fortifications or other Defenses Appointed by the President of the United States under the Provisions of the Act of Congress Approved March 3, 1885, House Executive Document No. 49, 49th Congress, 1st session (GPO, Washington D.C.,1886). This report marked the start of the modern era of the U.S. coastal defenses. This board report reviewed the state of American harbor defenses in 1885 and recommended a completely new system of harbor defenses based on the emerging technology of rifled breech loading cannons and armor. The major harbors of the U.S. were ranked in terms of military and economic importance. When Congress began to appropriate money for the construction of the new defenses in the late 1880s, this report was cited as the authorization source for the harbors to be defended. The Taft Board Report was formally known as the Report of the National Coast Defense Board . . . on the Coast Defenses of the United States and the Insular Possessions, Senate Document No. 248, 59th Congress 1st Session (GPO, Washington D.C., 1906). This report surveyed the progress in harbor defenses made since the Endicott Report and recommended a number of technical improvements. It also recommended the fortification of key harbors in the newly acquired overseas possessions such as Hawaii and the Philippines. As a bonus we have also included the Report of the Board of Review of the War Department to the Secretary of War (November 26, 1915) on the Coast Defenses of the United States, the Panama Canal, and the Insular Possessions, House Document No. 49, 64th Congress, 1st Session (G.P.O., Washington D.C., 1916). This report marks the transition from disappearing guns as the major weapon in American harbor defenses to the longer range 12- and 16-inch barbette carriage guns of the post World War I era. Available from the CDSG Press.
Two if by Sea: the Development of American Coast Defense Policy, by Robert S. Browning III, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983. An excellent discussion of the political development of the American coast defenses 1780s to the 1910s.
Heitman, Francis B., Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army from its Organization September 29, 1789 to March 2, 1903. This has been reprinted several times recently.
Text books used by the US Military Academy: Ordnance and Gunnery, by Lawrence L. Bruff, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1896 & 1902. Ordnance and Gunnery, by Ormond M. Lissak, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1908 & 1915; Ordnance and Gunnery, by William H. Tschappat, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1900s?; Ordnance and Gunnery, by Earl McFarland, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1929 & 1932; Elements of Ordnance, by Thomas J. Hayes, John Wiley & Sons, NY 1938. Photocopy reprints of several of these are available from Military-Info.com.
Coast Artillery School Publications, Fort Monroe, VA. Here are a few titles I have seen: Coast Artillery Training Bulletins (CATBs). These often went on to become Field Manuals; Army Extension Courses; Coast Artillery Weapons and Material Special Text No. 25, (1933 Edition); Fire Control and Position Finding for Seacoast Artillery (various dates).
Engineer Mimeograph Series. Another useful series, but unfortunately, very rare. Copies were printed and distributed to various offices, but few were preserved. The National Archives collection has been separated from their drawings and figures.
The Military Service Publishing Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. This company printed a number of texts used by ROTC program and Army Extension Courses. They can be found at used book stores. Examples include: The R.O.T.C. Manual, Coast Artillery, Basic & Advanced, The Coast Artillery Corps: a Complete Manual of Technique and Material, and Seacoast Artillery, Basic Tactics and Techniques.
Report of the Board on Fortifications or other Defenses Appointed by the President of the United States under the Provisions of the Act of Congress Approved March 3, 1885, House Executive Document No. 49, 49th Congress, 1st session (2 volumes, GPO, Washington D.C., 1886)--The Endicott Board Report. This is the start of the modern era of the United States coastal defenses. This board report reviewed the state of American harbor defenses in 1885 and recommended a completely new system of harbor defenses based on the emerging technology of rifled breech loading cannons and armor. The major harbors of the United States were ranked in terms of military and economic importance. When Congress began to appropriate money for the construction of the new defenses in the late 1880s, this report was cited as the authorization source for the harbors to be defended.
Report of the National Coast Defense Board . . . on the Coast Defenses of the United States and the Insular Possessions, Senate Document No. 248, 59th Congress 1st Session (GPO, Washington D.C., 1906)--The Taft Board Report. This report surveyed the progress in harbor defenses made since the Endicott Report and recommended a number of technical improvements. It also recommended the fortification of key harbors in the newly acquired overseas possessions such as Hawaii and the Philippines. Note: the fortification of entrances to the Panama Canal was authorized in the Spooner Act of 1902.
Report of the Board of Review of the War Department to the Secretary of War (November 26, 1915) on the Coast Defenses of the United States, the Panama Canal, and the Insular Possessions, House Document No. 49, 64th Congress, 1st Session (G.P.O., Washington D.C., 1916). This report marks the transition from disappearing guns as the major weapon in American harbor defenses to the longer range 12- and 16-inch barbette carriage guns of the post World War I era.
Memo "Harbor Defenses," War Plans Division, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, 8 Mar 1923, War Plans Division 1105. 18 pages. "This study, approved 17 Apr 1923, remained the basic definition of War Department policy with respect to Harbor Defenses until the eve of WW II." (Note 2, page 45 in: Guarding the United States and its Outposts, the US Army in WW II, The Western Hemisphere, by Conn, Engleman & Fairchild, Center of Military History, US Army, GPO, Washington, DC, 1989). Memo "Harbor Defenses in the Continental United States," War Plans Division, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, 6 Aug 31, AG 660.2 (9-30-31) War Plans Division 1105-55, 9 pages. This memo resulted in the creation of the Harbor Defense Board.
Documents pertaining to the 1940 Modernization Program for the Continental United States. This is some of the correspondence during study of Harbor Defense Board that was used to as the blueprint for the 1940 Harbor Defense Modernization Program. The July 27, 1940 letter recommending the building of "twenty-seven 16-inch batteries and fifty 6-inch batteries at major harbors around the continental United States," is a key document. Additional overseas construction (Alaska, Canada, Panama, Hawaii, and the Caribbean) were added later, some as separate programs. Other letters were the official army authorization for various parts of the program.
US War Department, Letter: "Abandonment of Harbor Defense Posts no longer required for Sea Coast Defense," Harbor Defense Board, President, AG 602 (7-27-40) M, 6 pages, Exhibit A (12 pages) contains the original list of batteries to be built beginning in 1941, Exhibit B (2 pages) (National Archives RG 407, Entry 360, Class. 602, Box 958).
These are often cited in CDSG Journal articles. These reports are part of the public record and the ones from the War Department are of particular interest to modern day researchers. These can be found at all major public libraries that are Federal record repositories. Some of the reports are separately bound.
Annual Report of the War Department
Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers: At the conclusion of each fiscal year, the chief of engineers submitted a written report to the secretary of war, covering the military operations of the Corps of Engineers, work on fortifications, and rivers and harbor improvement. These reports, especially in the Endicott Era, are basic resources for anyone researching seacoast defenses. Until 1922, these reports were published in the annual report of the secretary of war. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
Annual Report of the Chief of Ordnance
Annual Report of the Chief of Artillery, Chief of Coast Artillery:
At the conclusion of each fiscal year, the chief of artillery (1901-1907) and chief of coast artillery (1908-1937) submitted a written report to the secretary of war, covering the military operations of the Corps of Artillery/Coast Artillery. These reports are basic resources for anyone researching seacoast defenses. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
The National Archives in Washington, D.C., (Archives I), has three boxes of typewritten proceedings of the Board of Engineers, 1887-1905, in Record Group 77, Entry 462. This Board of Engineers was the continuation of the board created in 1816 to oversee the Third System of Fortifications. Until the creation of a chief of artillery in 1901, the board had virtually sole responsibility for fortification planning. In addition, for some years the board was also responsible for river and harbor improvements. However, the National Archives does not have the proceedings for all the years the board was in existence. For fortifications, the record largely stops at the end of 1905. Following the practice of the board, references to the artillery defense of a harbor are separate from those referring to the submarine mine and searchlight defenses. There are a number of general references to mines, as well as ammunition hoists, gun and mortar batteries, and fire control. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
The National Archives Record Group 392 includes four classes of record books that are from coast defenses installations. These were the official record books maintained at the various sites, with information on commanders, names of sites, and fire control systems. They are: Battery Emplacement Books, Fort Record Books, Fort Record Book Files (supplements to the Fort Record Books), Mine Command Record Books. Very few of these have been copied.
Drill Regulations for Coast Artillery, United States Army (1898, 1906, 1909, 1914), Govt. Printing Off., Washington, D.C. One of the early drill manuals published by the War Department specifically on seacoast defenses, these manuals outline the procedures used to fire the guns and operate the equipment used by the Coast Artillery Corps, including general principles, assignment of personnel, formations, command structure, fire control, gun drills, emplacement instructions, target practice, searchlights, communication, apparatus and instruments, care of materiel, definition of terms, and exams for gunners. Photocopy reprints of the 1914 Drill Regulations are available from Military-Info.com. A PDF version is available form the CDSG ePress.
Manual for Submarine Mining (1898, 1912, 1926, 1930): A manual of procedures for the handing of submarine mines was developed 1890s and revised several times. A PDF version is available form the CDSG ePress.
Training Regulations (separate series, TR 435 coast artillery) 1920's. These individually printed chapters replaced the book-bound "Drill Regulations" in the 1920s. These "TRs" were designed to be assembled into binders and could be "custom assembled" based on the interests of the individual officer or enlisted man. Photocopies of several Training Regulations are available from Military/Info Publishing. PDF versions of a few of these titles are available from the CDSG ePress.
Field Manuals and Training Manuals: The beginning in the late 1920s the army manual system was overhauled, redone, and printed as Field Manuals (FM) and Technical Manuals (TM), all part of the Army Manual system. A fairly complete set of original FMs and TMs are housed at Carlisle Barracks. Photocopies of several coast artillery FMs and TMs are available from Military/Info Publishing. A partial PDF list of coast artillery FMs and coast artillery TMs can be downloaded here by clicking the links: a list of Coast Artillery Field Manuals titles (FMlist.pdf (9K)), and a list of Coast Artillery Training Manual titles (TMlist.pdf (8K)). PDF versions of a few of these titles are available from the CDSG ePress.
Coast Artillery Tables of Organization and Equipment (TOEs): TABLES OF ALLOWANCES, TABLES OF BASIC ALLOWANCES, TABLES OF EQUIPMENT, TABLES OF ORGANIZATION / ORGANIZATION & EQUIPMENT. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
Ordnance Department Documents: The Ordnance Department published a series of specific handbooks on the various weapons used by the US Army. Ordnance Department Document (ODD) No. 1467 is has a list of these pamphlets. A fairly complete collection of these documents are in the holdings of Carlisle Barracks and at the National Archives in RG-287 (Records of the Government Printing Office). Photocopies of several Ordnance Department Documents are available from Military/Info Publishing. A partial PDF list of coast artillery ODD titles is available here by clicking the link (ODDlist.pdf (18K). PDF versions of a couple of these titles are available form the CDSG ePress.
Ordnance Dept. Gun and Carriage Cards: These cards, organized by caliber with individual entries by serial number, contain information on the transfer (from location to location) and often the ultimate fate (scrapped, sent to a town, sent to the proving ground, etc.) of individual guns and carriages during their service life. The cards cover roughly the period 1900-1945. The files are organized by caliber both for guns and carriages: 3-, 4-, 4.7-, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 12 (M)-, 14-, 16-inch guns. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
These publications were the professional journals for the artillery and coast artillery. They have a wide variety of news, history, and technical articles on US Coast Artillery. Complete sets are hard to find, but some of the larger libraries have some copies. Issues often turn up at used book sales. The CAJ was originally published by the Coast Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Virginia, and later by the United States Coast Artillery Association. The Journal also published a series of 12 Gunner's Instruction Pamphlets, which covered all aspects of antiaircraft, fixed and mobile artillery and submarine mining. In 1948 the Journal was renamed the Antiaircraft Journal, which was last published in 1954. A complete set of PDFs of the Coast Artillery Journal is now online.
In the National Archives Record Group 407, Records of the Adjutant General's Office, 1917-, Entry 366, are filed the annexes to the various Harbor Defense Projects of the 1920s to 1940s. A Harbor Defense Project was a written document which described all existing and projected harbor defense elements, including structures. Supplements to Harbor Defense Projects were published to update these projects and contain the annexes, or the annexes were published as a separate document themselves. A number of annexes (and supplements) were issued in 1932, 1936 and during the years 1944-1946. The annexes produced during the years 1944-1948 detail the progress on the construction of the new 1940s modernization program defenses with descriptions and a set of maps that showed where these new structures were located, the field of fire of the guns, radar coverage, etc. These annexes contain a wealth of information. They provide extensive detailed information on all tactical and physical aspects of the harbor defenses on the date of the annex, both existing and proposed, and a number of exhibits detailing the locations of elements. They follow a format consisting of the following items, though this varies a bit with both location and date.
These annexes contain specific information on each of the items cited above and contain a number of detailed maps and drawings. Exhibits included fields of fire for the major batteries, tactical organization charts, ammunition allowances, location maps, site maps, cable routings, and various appendices. The annexes produced between 1944-1948 cover much of the new harbor defense construction then underway with a detailed description and a set of maps that showed where these new structures were located, the field of fire of the guns, radar coverage, etc. The maps are particularly useful for the precise location of the 1940s-era fire control elements, both planned and built. Many of these annexes have been located and reproduced from the archives. Many of these maps have their own symbol key located on one or more of the general maps. An excellent place to find very specific information on a given harbor defense during the World War II years, but a visit to the College Park National Archives is required to get a photocopy.
The CDSG ePress has PDF files of the complete Annexes/Supplements to the Harbor Defense Projects from 1944-46
Reports of completed batteries (RCBs) and reports of completed works (RCWs) were forms used by the Corps of Engineers to document seacoast fortification structures and other buildings related to coast defense. RCBs were in use from 1903 until RCWs were created in 1919. Reports of completed works (RCWs) were created by a circular letter issued by the chief of engineers, Eben E. Winslow, on January 30, 1919. It prescribed that all data that would be submitted on seven forms referred to as reports of completed works. The main difference in the RCW compared to the RCB was the separation of data onto different forms. RCWs were in use from 1919 until the coast artillery was disbanded in 1950. These forms contain vary specific information on the construction and physical characteristics of seacoast fortification structures built by the USACE.
A brief description of the content of each of those seven forms,
which changed remarkably little over the next 30 years, follows:
RCWs also allowed for greater detail in documenting different elements of coast defenses than the RCB. Both are essential documents in the study of modern U.S. coast defenses. Copies of these forms are located in various holdings of the National Archives system. A number of these documents have been duplicated by various researchers over the years.
The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files of the RCWs that have been copied from the National Archives.
The first series of maps (1900-1935) was reproduced as negatives from a master positive in blueprint style, which meant maps were composed of white lines on a blue background. As they were classified "confidential" by the War Department, they became known as "confidential blueprints." As they were updated frequently, maps of different dates provide a snapshot of what structures were on a given military reservation on a given date. The confidential blueprint series of maps has general maps of each defended harbor, and general maps of each of the forts and military reservations in the harbor defense. If it was warranted, larger scale maps of parts of some forts were also included. These were labeled "D" for "detail" and followed in series, D-1, D-2, D-3, etc., as required. These maps show the location of batteries, various components of the fire control and communication system, mine facilities, and all the post buildings. Identification of each structure was shown by name, symbol, abbreviation, or number. A complete update of these maps was performed during the years 1920-1922, just after the major construction projects of the Endicott and Taft programs were completed, but before some of the smaller harbor defense areas were eliminated.
The 1922 collection contains about 290 maps of 29 harbor areas. A complete set of the maps collected in 1922 has been found and reproduced from the National Archives. These have been scanned into electronic format (along with some additional map sets of various dated in the 1930s and 1940s) and are available as downloadable PDF files on the CDSG database page. They are also available from CDSG ePress.
Many other maps in this series, some initially drawn in the first decade of the 1900s, were updated over the years up to the late 1930s. The dates are noted in the series in the upper left hand corner of the maps. The new Harbor Defense Modernization Program begun in 1940 brought with it a new series of confidential, or secret, blueprint maps.
A number of aerial photographs of the various harbor defense installations were taken by the Signal Corps from 1920s to the beginning of World War II. The collection includes photo sets of the following defenses: Baltimore (16 photos), Boston (74 photos), Canal Zone (29 photos), Charleston (14 photos), Chesapeake Bay (60 photos), Delaware Bay (21 photos), Eastern New York (28 photos), Galveston (3 photos), The Great Lakes (12 photos), Key West (4 photos), Long Island Sound (37 photos), Los Angeles (7 photos), Narragansett Bay (16 photos), NE Florida (4 photos), Oahu (53 photos), Pensacola (7 photos), The Phillipines (30 photos), Portland (29 photos), Puget Sound (9 photos), San Diego (7 photos), San Francisco (38 photos), Sandy Hook & Rockaway (12 photos), Savannah (11 photos), Southern New York (75 photos), and a series of photos taken for the Western Defense Command (San Diego (2 photos), Los Angeles (5 photos), San Francisco (56 photos), Columbia River (36 photos), Puget Sound (85 photos). Each set has anywhere from a few shots to over a dozen shots of the various forts. The CDSG ePress has a series of JPEG files that have been copied from the National Archives.
The engineer assigned to each harbor defense kept a notebook on the defense structures that were located in a given harbor defense. They maintained a ledger, a journal, and memorandum log for the batteries, the fire control structures, the electrical generators, the searchlights, the torpedo (mine) structures, and in some cases, the land defenses. A fairly complete set appears to have been collected around the mid-1920s and is now housed in the National Archives. These notebooks have information on when the structures were built, but more importantly information on modifications and changes to these structures over the years. The CDSG ePress has a series of PDF files that have been copied from the National Archives.
(Text of the article only, for illustrations please download the full article)
While concrete (and earth) gun and mortar batteries are the most prominent, and permanent, structures at coastal forts, those forts were much more than just gun batteries. They were filled with all the buildings necessary to house, supply, and administer the garrison, as well as the wide variety of structures needed to make life bearable in the often isolated posts. These non-tactical buildings vastly outnumbered the batteries, and represented the greater reality of army life for the soldiers. These structures, commonly frame or brick, were largely constructed by the U.S. Army Quartermaster Department (Quartermaster Corps from 1912) until that responsibility was transferred to the Corps of Engineers on December 1, 1941.
The number and variety of these buildings multiplied over the years. The range of buildings is truly incredible -- from commanding officers quarters to manure pits, from guardhouses to flagpoles. In addition, a major quartermaster responsibility was the utilities that supplied the forts -- water, sewerage, electricity, and natural gas, as well as building and maintaining the docks and wharves that served as the principal transportation for so many seacoast forts.
Many forts still maintain and use examples of these attractive older buildings. Paralleling research into the gun batteries, more attention is now being devoted to the other buildings and structures, more numerous yet more fragile than the concrete batteries.
The structures of the modern era, those dating from approximately 1890, can be categorized chronologically, and as either permanent or temporary. These terms are more conceptual than descriptive. The distinction was whether the buildings were intended to be used for an indefinite period or whether they were intended to only be used for a short time, normally a mobilization period. Nonetheless, many temporary buildings built as America prepared to enter World War II remain in use today, and when properly maintained, they have in some cases outlasted permanent buildings. This article will provide an introduction to the permanent structures of 1891-1917, with emphasis on archival documentation.
The Quartermaster Corps kept careful historical records on the buildings and structures for which it was responsible. These records were transferred to the Corps of Engineers along with the responsibility for construction and maintenance. At Archives II in College Park, MD, Entries 393 and 394, RG 77 (Records of the Chief of Engineers), contain many of these records, arranged generally in alphabetical order by post. Entry 393 contains the records of active posts, 1905-1942, while the much smaller Entry 394 contains the records of abandoned posts, 1905-1924.
The Historical Record of Buildings described individual structures. The term building was used in the broadest sense, and included wharfs, manure pits, tennis courts, and even statues.
The first such forms in the record, dating from 1905, are un-numbered. They contain information on two buildings, one on each side of the 10 x 12 card-stock form. Filed by post building number, the forms list the construction date, materials, and equipment (to include wash basins, showers, urinals, screen doors, and wall lockers), as well as an annual list of expenditures for repairs. Perhaps most valuable, the forms normally displayed a 4 x 5-inch black and white photograph of the structure. While some of these photographs are dark and some have faded, many are extremely sharp, showing gleaming new buildings, or in some cases, failing remnants from the last century. Occasionally, a terse notation will be found to the effect that Structure is underground, hence no photograph (in the case of a reservoir), No photography permitted (in the case of a magazine), or Structure burned before photograph could be taken. As a group, however, these photographs provide an unparalleled glimpse of the actual appearance of these forts almost 100 years ago. With the buildings mostly gone, these photographs are our best information on how they actually looked.
In 1913, the forms were designated Form 173 a. By 1921, the forms, now 173 A, were enlarged to 10 x 14 inches and covered only one structure. On the reverse a grid pattern was provided for a simple plan of the structure. Plans were drawn for some structures; others had blueprints pasted on, while still others were blank. In 1924, the form was renumbered 117, but otherwise remained relatively unchanged.
These forms cover buildings built until the Corps of Engineers assumed responsibility days before the United States entered World War II. Both permanent and temporary buildings are included, as well as a number of civilian structures taken over by the army when the land on which they stood became part of a military post.
Quarters, which included barracks and houses for officers and NCOs, along with the buildings that most closely represented the service, such as administration buildings, guardhouses, post exchanges, and theaters, tended to be attractive buildings. Built in a number of styles at different posts, they were intended to create an atmosphere of attractive order. The surviving quarters at Fort Worden, WA, are excellent examples of this sense of style and appearance of class.
Supporting buildings, on the other hand, tended to be more utilitarian. Without the stylistic embellishments of the buildings that served to represent the army, the supporting structures were normally simple frame buildings, although the prevalence of galvanized tin structures is surprising.
One of the most important entries on the Historical Record of Buildings, was the OQMG (Office of the Quartermaster General) plan number, which was normally listed, at least for 1891-1917 buildings. These plan numbers, in turn, lead to another valuable source. From 1891 through 1917, the quartermasters built most structures to numbered standard plans. As these plans were updated, letter suffixes were added. Thus, for example, standard plans No. 120 were for a double set of officers’ quarters, and standard plans No. 120-E were for duplex lieutenant’s quarters.
The Cartographic Branch at Archives II contains Standard Plans of Army Post Buildings (Received from Quartermaster Office) 1891-1917. These are hundreds of standard plans prepared by the Office of the Quartermaster General. A notebook lists the plans by number and suffix, with the number of sheets prepared. To request them, merely specify RG 77, PI NM-19, Standard Plans of Army Post Buildings 1891-1917, with the plan number and letter suffix desired. The number of sheets varies from one to more than a dozen, and averages around eight or nine for larger structures. The plans are in ink on linen, usually about 24 x 37 inches. For most buildings there are front, rear, and side elevations, and plans for each floor. These plans show structural details, as well as plumbing, heating, and lighting fixtures. The remaining sheets show smaller details, such as doors, windows, coal chutes, and furniture such as cupboards and dressers. The scale for the elevations and plans is usually 1/4 inch = 1 foot, while the scale for the details varies from 1/2 inch to 3 inches = 1 foot.
Most post buildings of this era are gone, but a number survive at coastal forts around the country. Luckily, there are surviving buildings in almost every coastal region of the country.
A set of Quartermaster Records for all the major Coast Artillery forts is available from the CDSG ePress.
Information on the organization of the coast artillery corps, unit histories and unit insignia has been researched by a variety of authors. The CDSG has published a series of articles on the organnization of the CAC. We have a webpage dedicated to Coast Artillery Corps Organization which has a number of PDF articles for downloading.
Also one can consult these references:
* U.S.Army War College, Historical Section, Order of Battle of the United States Land Forces in the World War, Zone of the Interior: Organization and Activities of the War Department, 3 Vols., GPO,Wash. DC, 1949.
* Clay, Steven E. U.S. Army Order of Battle 1919-1942, Combat Studies Institute Press, US Combined Arms Center, Ft. Leavenworth, KS 2010.
* Sawicki, James P., Antiaircraft Battalions of the U.S. Army, Volumes 1 & 2, Wyvern Publications, Dumphries, VA, 1991.
* Stanton, Shelby L., Order of Battle, US Army in World War II, Presidio Press, Novato, CA, 1984.
* Bean, P.W., Parisi, F.J., Puylara, J. and Littman, A.A., "Antiaircraft - Coast Artillery Corps, Distinctive Insignia Series 20," American Society of Military Insignia Collectors, 526 Lafayette Avenue, Palmerton, PA 18071-1621.
* War Department, Official Army Register, January 1, 1934, GPO, Wash. DC.
* War Department, Army List and Directory, GPO, Wash. DC, various dates (1908-1936).